arXiv:2510.08558v3 Announce Type: replace Abstract: A long-term goal of language agents is to learn and improve through their own experience, ultimately outperforming humans in complex, real-world tasks. However, training agents from experience data with reinforcement learning remains difficult in many environments, which either lack verifiable rewards (e.g., websites) or require inefficient long-horizon rollouts (e.g., multi-turn tool use). As a result, most current agents rely on supervised fine-tuning on expert data, which is challenging to scale and generalizes poorly. This limitation stems from the nature of expert demonstrations: they capture only a narrow range of scenarios, and expose the agent to limited environment diversity. We address this limitation with a middle-ground paradigm we call early experience: interaction data generated by the agent's own actions, where the resulting future states serve as supervision without reward signals. Within this paradigm, we study two strategies of using such data: (1) implicit world modeling, which uses collected states to ground the policy in environment dynamics; and (2) self-reflection, where the agent learns from its suboptimal actions to improve reasoning and decision-making. Evaluation across eight diverse environments and multiple model families shows that our approaches consistently improve effectiveness and out-of-domain generalization, highlighting the value of early experience. Moreover, in environments with verifiable rewards, our results provide promising signals that early experience offers a strong foundation for subsequent reinforcement learning, making it a practical bridge between imitation learning and fully experience-driven agents.

arXiv:2510.09782v2 Announce Type: replace Abstract: We study how large language models (LLMs) ``think'' through their representation space. We propose a novel geometric framework that models an LLM's reasoning as flows -- embedding trajectories evolving where logic goes. We disentangle logical structure from semantics by employing the same natural deduction propositions with varied semantic carriers, allowing us to test whether LLMs internalize logic beyond surface form. This perspective connects reasoning with geometric quantities such as position, velocity, and curvature, enabling formal analysis in representation and concept spaces. Our theory establishes: (1) LLM reasoning corresponds to smooth flows in representation space, and (2) logical statements act as local controllers of these flows' velocities. Using learned representation proxies, we design controlled experiments to visualize and quantify reasoning flows, providing empirical validation of our theoretical framework. Our findings indicate that training solely via next-token prediction can lead LLMs to internalize logical invariants as higher-order geometry in representation space, challenging the ``stochastic parrot'' argument. Experiments across Qwen and LLaMA model families further suggest the presence of a general, possibly universal, representational law underlying machine understanding and human linguistic regularities, largely independent of specific training recipes or model architectures. Our work serves as both a conceptual foundation and practical tools for studying reasoning phenomena, offering a new lens for interpretability and formal analysis of LLMs' behavior.

arXiv:2510.24702v2 Announce Type: replace-cross Abstract: Public research results on large-scale supervised finetuning of AI agents remain relatively rare, since the collection of agent training data presents unique challenges. In this work, we argue that the bottleneck is not a lack of underlying data sources, but that a large variety of data is fragmented across heterogeneous formats, tools, and interfaces. To this end, we introduce the agent data protocol (ADP), a light-weight representation language that serves as an "interlingua" between agent datasets in diverse formats and unified agent training pipelines downstream. The design of ADP is expressive enough to capture a large variety of tasks, including API/tool use, browsing, coding, software engineering, and general agentic workflows, while remaining simple to parse and train on without engineering at a per-dataset level. In experiments, we unified a broad collection of 13 existing agent training datasets into ADP format, and converted the standardized ADP data into training-ready formats for multiple agent frameworks. We performed SFT on these data, and demonstrated an average performance gain of ~20% over corresponding base models, and delivers state-of-the-art or near-SOTA performance on standard coding, browsing, tool use, and research benchmarks, without domain-specific tuning. All code and data are released publicly, in the hope that ADP could help lower the barrier to standardized, scalable, and reproducible agent training.

arXiv:2602.19517v2 Announce Type: replace Abstract: We introduce CFE-Bench (Classroom Final Exam), a multimodal benchmark for evaluating the reasoning capabilities of large language models across more than 20 STEM domains. CFE-Bench is curated from repeatedly used, authentic university homework and exam problems, paired with reference solutions provided by course instructors. CFE-Bench remains challenging for frontier models: the newly released Gemini-3.1-pro-preview achieves 59.69% overall accuracy, while the second-best model, Gemini-3-flash-preview, reaches 55.46%, leaving substantial room for improvement. Beyond aggregate scores, we conduct a diagnostic analysis by decomposing instructor reference solutions into structured reasoning flows. We find that while frontier models often answer intermediate sub-questions correctly, they struggle to reliably derive and maintain correct intermediate states throughout multi-step solutions. We further observe that model-generated solutions typically contain more reasoning steps than instructor solutions, indicating lower step efficiency and a higher risk of error accumulation. Data and code are available at https://github.com/Analogy-AI/CFE_Bench.

arXiv:2602.19517v1 Announce Type: new Abstract: We introduce \CFE{} (\textbf{C}lassroom \textbf{F}inal \textbf{E}xam), a multimodal benchmark for evaluating the reasoning capabilities of large language models across more than 20 STEM domains. \CFE{} is curated from repeatedly used, authentic university homework and exam problems, together with reference solutions provided by course instructors. \CFE{} presents a significant challenge even for frontier models: the newly released Gemini-3.1-pro-preview achieves an overall accuracy of 59.69\%, while the second-best model, Gemini-3-flash-preview, reaches 55.46\%, leaving considerable room for improvement. Beyond leaderboard results, we perform a diagnostic analysis by decomposing reference solutions into reasoning flows. We find that although frontier models can often answer intermediate sub-questions correctly, they struggle to reliably derive and maintain correct intermediate states throughout multi-step solutions. We further observe that model-generated solutions typically have more reasoning steps than those provided by the instructor, indicating suboptimal step efficiency and a higher risk of error accumulation. The data and code are available at https://github.com/Analogy-AI/CFE_Bench.